History and Development of Psychology

History and Development of Psychology DEVELOPMENT OF PSYCHOLOGY The commencement of the history of psychology is difficult to determine, essentially for the reason that it is hard to found accurately what psychology is. Instead, we can simply point that psychology is the study of the mind and its  functions particularly those disturbing comportment in a given context. One way to think about the olden times of psychology is to categorize the different theorists and theories into â€Å"sections† (or schools of thought). Each section is a manner of thinking about human mind and actions that actually dominated the field for a certain epoch until a new manner of considering psychology started to control the field. THE BEGINNINGS OF PSYCHOLOGY The most primitive origins of psychology are, predictably, found in the primeval cultures of Greece, Egypt, China and India. (Oren Lahav .Origins of psychology.Available: http://psychology.learnhub.com/lesson/3833-origins-of-psychology. Last accessed 27 January 2015.) While modern psychology reveals the discipline’s rich and diverse history, the roots of psychology fluctuate considerably from present conceptions of the field. (Kendra cherry.The OriginsofPsychology.Available:http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychistory.htm. Last accessed 27 January 2015.) From its initial beginnings, psychology has been confronted with several questions. The initial interrogation of how to describe psychology help out to establish it as a science distinct from physiology and philosophy. Further questions that psychologists have faced all through history comprise: Is psychology truly a science? Should psychology emphasis on visible behaviors, or on inner cerebral processes? What topics and issues should psychology be concerned with? Whatresearch methodsshould be used to study psychology? Psychology itself had a long history, as a topic within the fields of philosophy and physiology. The initial psychological fundamentals are deep-rooted in philosophy. While the great philosophical dissimilarity between mind and body in western believed can be originated to the Greeks, it is to the powerful work of Renà © Descartes, French mathematics, philosopher and psychologist that we owe the concept of dualism that stated that the mind and the body were two dissimilar things that interrelate to create the human experience. (History of Psychology. 123HelpMe.com. Available: http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=69704. Last accessed 27 January 2015). Today psychology is still related with several of the fundamental philosophical enquiries that thinkers were considering many years ago such as the correlative contributions of nature vs. nurture. (Kendra cherry.The Influence of Philosophy and Physiology. Available:http://www.netplaces.com/psychology/psychology-yesterday-and-today/the-i nfluence-of-philosophy-and-physiology.htm. Last accessed 27 January 2015). So what sorts out psychology unlike from philosophy? Early philosophers have recourse to techniques such as observation and judgment while modern psychologists made use of scientific ways to investigate and derive conclusions about human notion and actions. Early physiology enquiry on the mind and actions had an outstanding influence on psychology, essentially giving rise to the application of scientific methods to the study of human mind and behavior. (Kendra cherry.The OriginsofPsychology.Available:http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychistory.htm. Last accessed 27 January 2015.) Psychology emerges as a separate discipline. Psychology took so long to emanate as a research-based field because it required time to mingle. Interpretating behavior, thoughts and emotions is challenging, which may possibly demonstrate why it was basically disregarded between ancient Greek times and the 16th century. (Saul McLeod. (2008). Psychology as a Science. Available: http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html. Last accessed 27 January 2015.) So how psychology did became an independent field? Wundtian Psychology and Structuralism Psychology as a research-based subject began to spring in the 1800’s. (Saul McLeod. (2008). Psychology as a Science. Available: http://www.simplypsychology.org/science-psychology.html. Last accessed 27 January 2015.) Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) is recognized with founding the first psychology laboratory in Leipzig, Germany in 1879. Generally reckoned as the father of psychology, we might credit the founding to Wundt in 1874 when he composed his first textbook issued as â€Å"Principles of Physiological Psychology†. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology. Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 28 January 2015). Wundt actually made use of scientific methodologies especially his primary method of research which was â€Å"introspection†. (History of Psychology. 123HelpMe.com. Available: http://www.123HelpMe.com/view.asp?id=69704. Last accessed 27 January 2015). Wundt was concerned in studying the mind and conscious involvement. He maintained the point that the investigation of mindful thoughts would be the key to know the mind. His method to the enquiry of the mind was revolutionary in that it was founded on methodical and rigorous reflection, setting the groundwork for modern psychological research. †. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology.Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 27 January 2015). Introspection was a practice used by investigators to term and examine their personal internal thoughts and emotions throughout a research experience (From R. Eric Landrum. Brief History of Psychology. Available: http://personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/c/acp103/PSYCH105/brief_history.htm. Department of Psychology. Boise State University. Last accessed 28 January 2015). Introspection subsisted for a few times and is still used today in present neuroscience study; nevertheless many scientists slate the use of introspection for its lack of experimental approach and fairness. (Kendra cherry.The Influence of Philosophy and Physiology. Available:http://www.netplaces.com/psychology/psychology-yesterday-and-today/the-influence-of-philosophy-and-physiology.htm. Last accessed 28 January 2015). Structuralism Becomes Psychology’s First School of Thought Structuralism emerged from Wundts concepts. Edward B. Titchener, an English instructor who was an apprentice under Wundt’s management, elaborated upon Wundts ideas and used them to establish the theory of structuralism, which aim to comprehend the mind as the â€Å"sum of varying underlying parts†. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology.Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 28 January 2015). The ultimate objective was to understand the brainpower. He assumed that if the rudimentary constituents of the mind could be demarcated and classified, then the structure of mental processes and higher thinking could be resoluted. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology.Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 28 January 2015). Using Wundt’s primary method that is introspection, however with strict guidelines, Titchener’s volunteers would try to crack down their responses and reactions to the most root feelings and discernments. (Kendra Cherry. ().The Origins of Psychology.Available: http://psychology.about.com/od/historyofpsychology/a/psychistory.htm. Last accessed 28 January 2015.) Structuralism was criticized because its subject of scrutiny—the conscious experience—was not simply studied with skillful experimentation. Its reliance on introspection, despite Titcheners strict rules, was disapproved for its deficiency in authenticity. Judges claimed that self-reflection is not viable, and that introspection can provide diverse results depending on the subject. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology.Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 28 January 2015). Even though the quest of structuralism mostly died with Titchener (1867-1927), he supplied a solid system of psychology which would well along be the matter and center of major alterations in psychology, resulting in a substitute approach to psychology: functionalism. (â€Å"Early Frameworks: Structuralism and Functionalism.†(20 Sep 2014). Boundless Psychology.Available:https://www.boundless.com/psychology/textbooks/boundless-psychology-textbook/introduction-to-psychology-1/history-of-psychology-23/early-frameworks-structuralism-and-functionalism-111-12648/ Last accessed 28 January 2015). Functionalism Functionalism is of great significance to the history of American psychology, for the reason that it is a system of psychology that is exclusively American. Wundtian psychology and structuralism one and the other have their origins in Germany, but functionalism is an American product. (From R. Eric Landrum. Brief History of Psychology. Available: http://personal.psu.edu/faculty/a/c/acp103/PSYCH105/brief_history.htm. Department of Psychology. Boise State University. Last accessed 28 January 2015). The Functionalism of William James American psychologist William James emerges in the mid- to late-1800s. While structuralism centered  (synonymize)on discovering the structure of consciousness and how its contents are organized and stored, functionalists were more interested in how the mind worked, what mental processes accomplish, and what role consciousness plays in our behavior. As you can see, these are two strikingly different approaches. The functionalist wanted to know how and why the mind works (as opposed to how is it structured).

Landing at Inchon

Landing at Inchon: Foolish Risk or Calculated Gamble? Campaign Analysis: Operation CHROMITE The Ultimate Challenge for the Commander is deciding on where and when to commit forces to best leverage available combat power against the opponent. General Douglas MacArthur has been criticized for his decision, even though it succeeded, to make the invasion of Korea at the harbor of Inchon. This paper explores the legitimacy of that decision based on the principles of military power. A popular military aphorism is that victory has a thousand fathers, while defeat is an orphan.The American invasion of Inchon during the Korean War must certainly be the exception to this. General Douglas MacArthur, loved by some, hated by others, rightfully deserves all of the credit for such a bold and audacious decision. In retrospect, his decision deserves perhaps a bit more circumspection. If Inchon had failed, whether tactically or strategically, not only could the war’s outcome have been different , but most certainly MacArthur would have been lambasted in his own time, as well as our own by arm chair theorists and generals.Was his decision soundly based in military principles, balanced by ends to means? Or was it a gambler’s last toss of the dice? America’s war aims at the onset of the Korean War were simple: Drive the North Korean People’s Army (NKPA) out of South Korea, back across the 38 th parallel and re-establish peace on American terms. These were the explicit aims. The strategic priorities will sound strikingly familiar to those familiar with strategic debate in this era of Bosnia, Somalia, Haiti and Operation Desert Storm: End the war as quickly as possible and keep U. S. casualties to a minimum.Even in the 1950s, there was a political drive to keep wars short and bloodless; to attain national ends without expending resources. Perhaps the national tendency to hope to attain something for nothing is a fundamental characteristic of America. For th e North Koreans, the opposite was true. Kim Il Sung’s aim was to reunify the two Koreas. Since he could not accomplish this politically, he resorted to military means to gain a political end. He had committed North Korea’s limited resources and manpower utterly and completely to the reunification of the Korean peninsula.Kim Il Sung may not have realized it, but he had two possible branches of strategic priorities. The first was to drive the Americans out of the Pusan Perimeter and back to Japan, thus allowing him time to consolidate his hold politically, socially and militarily on Korea. The second branch, far more subtle, would have been to keep the Americans bottled up at Pusan and continue to attrit American lives, while consolidating his hold and strengthening his long logistical tail. By killing Americans, North Korea could make victory appear extremely costly to the American government and perhaps wear down the political will to fight.The political will to fight would be backed up by how the American military would actually conduct the fight. American doctrine has historically been framed by the notion of preparing to fight the next war as the last one was fought. While this type of doctrinal thinking came back to haunt the U. S. in Vietnam; strangely enough, it was the correct approach for Korea. The American military had of course, only just finished fighting World War Two five years prior to North Korea’s invasion of South Korea. While the U. S. orce structure had been dramatically drawn down and was unprepared to fight the next war, its doctrinal approach to waging war had not changed. American doctrine during the previous war was offensively oriented, relying primarily on the infantry to hold key terrain once the enemy had been pushed off. The attrition of enemy forces was secondary to seizing and defending ground. Offensive action was used to envelop a foe’s flank, without resorting to frontal assaults. Armor’s ro le was to gain the initiative either with an envelopment or a penetration at a weak point in the enemy’s front.Tanks were regarded as the best weapon to kill another tank. The doctrinal use of artillery and close air support made great strides during World War Two. By the end of that war, the U. S. Army was very good at conducting offensive war, largely because they did not have to defend their own homeland as the German Army had been forced to do. However, American defensive doctrine was weaker. Reliance on fortified strongpoints made penetration of American lines easy, as the 1 st Armored Division discovered to its regret during the opening phase of the Kasserine Pass battles.A strongpoint defense with mobile armored counterattack forces might work against an attacking tank division, but it was ill-equipped to deal with an infiltrating infantry force which attacked at night, bypassing the strongpoint and raided logistical bases. On the whole, the experience of the previous World Wars had molded the American commanders’ methods of waging combat. General Douglas MacArthur had been a regimental commander during World War One and an Army commander during World War Two. During both of his previous experiences, he had relied on boldness, audacity and the offensive to gain and maintain the initiative over his opponents.MacArthur’s brilliant use of amphibious operations in the Pacific against the Japanese had already provided him with the experience necessary to decide on an amphibious landing at Inchon, far behind enemy lines, to cut off the North Korean logistical lines of communication and quickly recapture the capital of South Korea, Seoul. As the American doctrinal approach to the operation was the same as in the previous conflict, so essentially were the forces at MacArthur’s disposal The U. S. Army force structure was centered on the pre-eminence of the infantry divisions, with integrated armor support.An infantry division had thre e regiments, with three battalions each, and four infantry companies per battalion. The division also had one tank battalion, parceling one company of M-24s (outgunned in comparison to the Russian made T-34 which the North Koreans used) to each regiment. During the drawdown which followed World War Two, the number of infantry battalions per regiment was reduced by one. The infantrymen’s arsenal largely consisted of small arms, mortars and heavy machine guns. However, the infantry had no truly effective anti-tank weapon. The standard issue 2. 36 inch rocket was no match for the thick armor of the T-34.The three division artillery battalions (one per infantry regiment) had also suffered cutbacks, dropping from three batteries each to two. With this structure, the X Corps, commanded by Major General Almond, was established to conduct the amphibious assault at Inchon. X Corps consisted of the 1st Marine Division, plus one regiment withdrawn from the Pusan Perimeter in order to br ing that Division to a full wartime strength of three regiments, and the 7th Infantry Division. While X Corps was the assault force, overall command and joint support was under the umbrella control of Joint Task Force (JTF) 7, with seven subordinate task forces.JTF-7 was a true joint operational command, incorporating Navy, Army and Marine units in order to support the assault force. JTF-7 would strike the North Koreans at a weak, unprepared point, effecting surprise and mass before the North Koreans could react. North Korean military doctrine closely resembled the Chinese model. Mao Tse Tung’s approach was to avoid strong points and infiltrate an enemy’s lines to hit the weakly defended rear areas, in order to destroy vital logistical areas. The North Koreans were not as road bound as the American army was, which gave them more flexibility than the Americans.North Korean equipment was largely Russian and Chinese made, including the awesome Russian T-34. The North Kore an force structure closely resembled the Chinese and Soviet triangular formation. On the offense, the two up and one back method was used. On the defense, this formation was reversed. The infantry division’s main body was usually preceded by four tank battalions, whose objective was to punch through an opponents main defenses and continue on into the rear areas, leaving the infantry to mop up.While sorely lacking in air support with only nineteen outdated Soviet aircraft and almost no navy to speak of, the North Koreans did possess the T-34 tank and towed artillery. In the Inchon/Seoul area, the 3 d, 10 th and 13 th Divisions were astride the Seoul-Taejon-Taegu highway, within easy striking range of the landing areas. Some 400 soldiers of the 3 d Bn, 226 th Independent Marine Regiment and elements of the 918 th Artillery Regiment defended Wolmi-do Island, the invasion’s initial objective. North Korean shore artillery consisted of 75mm guns inside concrete revetments. O peration CHROMITE succeeded for several reasons.First, the U. S. (with British assistance) was able to establish and maintain air supremacy; strike aircraft were able to hit North Korean units during daylight hours and attrit units in the Seoul-Inchon area. Control of the skies permitted the isolation of the invasion area and prevented reinforcing units from reaching the invasion area. Control of the sea permitted the logistical support of the assault force without fear of interruption by enemy surface or submarine forces. The presence of a secure logistical base on Japan ensured a smooth flow of supplies, both to units at Inchon as well as Pusan.With naval gunfire support, the Americans also pounded defensive positions on Wolmi-do Island with high explosives and napalm, effectively neutralizing the North Koreans. Securing the island was absolutely critical to success of the operation, because without it, the North Koreans could enfilade the invading amphibious forces with artillery and small arms fire. The capture of key terrain at Inchon, specifically Cemetery and Observatory Hills was also crucial in ensuring that X Corps would have a secure beachhead. Seizing the high ground east of Inchon at Yongdungp’o and Sosa gave the American the advantage of holding key terrain rom which to continue their operations to the east. The capture of Kimpo airfield on the morning of 18 September facilitated the staging of Marine Corsairs flying Close Air Support missions for the Marines on the ground. Further, small unit actions, such as the capture of the causeway linking Wolmi-do with Inchon illustrate the value of highly trained, motivated, veteran soldiers as a combat multiplier. In retrospect, the preconditions for victory were already and in place and the outcome of foregone conclusion; the combination of U. S. naval and air supremacy seem to have guaranteed it.However, the most critical action was Douglas MacArthur’s single minded determination to land X Corps at Inchon instead of the location preferred by the Joint Chiefs, Kunsan, 100 air miles south of Inchon. MacArthur had other options, besides Kunsan, which all seemed more prudent, but he stuck to his guns. Indeed, if he had simply introduced more troops into the Pusan Perimeter, or had made the envelopment more shallow, he would not have ended up with the results he achieved: Namely, a complete disruption of the North Korean LOCs and the recapture of Seoul.Instead of simply pushing the North Koreans back or pushing from another side, CHROMITE was designed to completely unhinge the North Koreans and throw them off balance by hitting them from the rear. Only MacArthur’s decision ensured a quick victory without resorting to a slow, bloody series of battles back north up the Korean peninsula, which would have allowed the North Koreans to retreat along their supply lines. The smashing success of CHROMITE, followed by the recapture of Seoul, coupled with the breakout from t he Pusan Perimeter by the Eighth Army, helped the Americans accomplish their principle war aim.The North Koreans were unable to disengage from the American Eight Army units in front of them and reinforce the invasion area. As part of their force was held by Eighth Army, even while withdrawing, North Korean rear area support units were devastated by X Corps. MacArthur’s hammer and anvil technique ensured the virtual collapse of the North Korean army. While the Americans gained their goals, the North Koreans nearly lost everything. In their gamble, they had committed all of their resources, stretching themselves thinly, only to have their logistical tail cut behind them.They retreated rapidly back across the 38 th Parallel, closely pursued by American and ROK units. MacArthur’s decision to land at Inchon, instead of further to the south as the Joint Chiefs would have preferred, was not only in accordance with the classic fundamentals of war, but more subtly, closely adhe red to Clausewitz’s approach. MacArthur realized that he had to make a political statement as well as conduct a military operation. The psychological effect of quickly recapturing the South Korean national capital sent a very strong statement to the rest of the Pacific rim, including China and Russia.CHROMITE was shrewdly designed to signal that America stood by her allies and would come through in a crisis. MacArthur’s adherence to the principles of war is a model for future similar operations: OBJECTIVE: General MacArthur chose Inchon as the landing site for the amphibious operation primarily because of its proximity to Seoul, the capital of South Korea. Inchon, located on the west coast of the Korean peninsula, is eighteen miles west of Seoul. MacArthur saw the recapture of Seoul as vital for winning the support of the United Nations and for putting fire into the motivation of the Allied Asian countries.Inchon was thus not only a military objective but a political o ne. OFFENSIVE: MacArthur saw Operation CHROMITE as the means towards taking the initiative away from the North Koreans. CHROMITE would place the Allied forces on the offensive and gain the decisive momentum required to prevent the war from stagnating and becoming a long, drawn out war of attrition which MacArthur, a veteran of World War One was already familiar with. MASS: The invasion force, X Corps, consisted of 70,000 troops. Intelligence estimates put the NKPA strength in the Inchon-Seoul area at 8,000 soldiers, of whom 1,800-2,500 were garrisoned in the landing area.This was later confirmed by POWs who stated that the Inchon garrison numbered 2,000. The U. S. Eighth Army, in the Pusan perimeter, was occupying the attention of the NKPA in the south and would keep the North Koreans busy in that sector. ECONOMY OF FORCE: MacArthur ordered one Marine regiment out of the Pusan perimeter in order to beef up the 1 st Marine Division, X Corps. This was a great risk, but the 1 st Divisi on commander, Major General Oliver Smith, did not feel that he would be able to accomplish the landings without the regiment.When MacArthur reviewed the risk of pulling one regiment out of Pusan, he reasoned that once the landings were successful, the NKPA would withdraw north to counterattack, thus taking pressure off Eighth Army. MANEUVER: The Americans had the advantage of interior lines at the Pusan perimeter, but were free to exploit exterior lines because of the lack of an opposing naval force. The North Koreans were strung out all along the Korean peninsula with long LOCs. The NKPA was also at a disadvantage because of their terrain induced flanks: the Korean coastline.CHROMITE was designed to be a flank attack with the goal of attacking deep in the enemy's rear, disrupting his LOCs and cutting off the main force's avenue of retreat. UNITY OF COMMAND: General MacArthur activated X Corps, appointing his Chief of Staff, Major General Edward Almond, as the commander. This was mo re critical than it appears on the surface because of the very multi-service nature of the Corps. With one Marine Division and one Army Division, a lesser commander might have decided to let each Division commander have his own area, without a single unified command and staff structure.MacArthur’s creation of X Corps for a single mission ensured that he could pick a commander who would follow his guidance to the letter, ensuring mission success, without squabbling over seniority and interservice rivalries. X Corps' sole mission was the Inchon landings and the subsequent capture of Seoul. General Almond understood this, and also knew that once the landings were completed, he was to return to Japan and continue his duties as the Far East Command CofS. SECURITY: MacArthur realized that operational security of Operation CHROMITE was of primary importance to the success of the landings.Surprise could not be achieved unless the enemy was caught wholly unprepared. Under a cloak of s ecrecy, X Corps staged out of Yokohoma and Kobe Japan behind a perfect natural screen, Typhoon June and in front of another one, Typhoon Kezia. SURPRISE: This was achieved partly because of negligible North Korean air and naval capability to gather intelligence on American troop movements. Also, Inchon was not considered the best location for an amphibious assault, by anyone, North Korean or American. Inchon has no beaches, only mud flats. There is also a serious tide problem, with a tidal variance of -. feet at low tide and 32 feet at high tide. However, CHROMITE was a complete success. The assault troops encountered only spotty resistance and friendly casualties were much lighter than expected. Within 24 hours of the main landings, the 1 st Marine Division had secured the high ground six miles east of Inchon. SIMPLICITY: CHROMITE was designed to be a single envelopment. X Corps made the amphibious assault at Inchon while the Eighth Army broke out of the Pusan perimeter to tie down and hold the NKPA in place. This prevented the North Koreans from reinforcing their rear areas.The Eighth Army was then to drive north, pushing the logistically cut off NKPA back north, where the Americans would link up with the landing force at Seoul. CHRONOLOGY OF OPERATION CHROMITE: 4 July- Planning conference chaired by MacArthur, who proposes an amphibious assault designed to cut the North Korean Lines of Communication (LOC) at Seoul. 12 August- CINCFE Operation 100-B issued naming Inchon as the target area for the assault. 23 August- Planning conference in Washington, during which MacArthur convincingly presents his case for the assault at Inchon. 6 August- General Order 24 is issued activating X Corps, naming Major General Almond as the commander. 28 August- The Joint Chiefs concur in principle with MacArthur’s plan. 31 August- Lt. Eugene Clark begins his intelligence collection mission at Yonghung-do. 3 September- JTF 7 OPLAN 9-50 issued. 4 September- Air attacks beg in against North Korean forces in the Seoul-Inchon area. MacArthur places the 1 st Marine Brigade under X Corps. 6 September- MacArthur confirms earlier orders and announces that D-Day will be 15 September. 11 September- X Corps units, the 1 st Marine Division and 7 th Infantry Division depart from ports in Japan. 3-14 September- The U. S. Navy’s Gunfire Support group arrives off Inchon and begins the bombardment of Wolmi-do Island with air support provided by TF 77. 15 September- D-Day- X Corps arrives at Inchon. 0500: Air strikes hit Wolmi-do Island. 0630: High tide in Inchon harbor. 0633: 3 d Bn, 5 th Marines land at Wolmi-do Island. 0750: Wolmi-do is secured. 1730: High tide in Inchon harbor. 1732: 1 st Marine Regiment lands at Blue Beach, Inchon. 1733: 5 th Marine Regiment lands at Red Beach, Inchon. 16 September- D+1: 7 th Infantry Division begins arriving at Inchon harbor. 130: Initial D-Day objectives secured. 18-19 September: 7 th Infantry Division lands and moves so uth of Inchon into a blocking position to protect the beachhead from counterattacks from the south. BIBLIOGRAPHY Appleman, Roy E. South to the Naktong, North to the Yalu (June-November 1950). The U. S. Army in World War II. Washington, DC: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1961. Doughty, Robert A. The Evolution of U. S. Army Tactical Doctrine, 1946-76. Leavenworth Papers No. 1. Ft. Leavenworth, KS: Combat Studies Institute, U. S. Army Command and General Staff College.

Rip Van Winkle

The characters in Rip Van Winkle and Young Goodman Brown written respectively by Washington Irving and Nathaniel Hawthorne leave their individual communities and return with radically different perspectives (of their current lives) that change their attitudes and way of life in the remaining of their lives. Both stories are set in early American villages, Young Goodman Brown takes place in the 1700’s New England puritan settlement while Rip Van Winkle takes place over 100 years later in an English colony in eastern New York. Both authors were very clever to use different historical context to illustrate cultural aspects of early American societies in order to make the reader aware of how big of a role gender, politics and religion where to the societies. Strange/Supernatural forces challenge and would radically change both characters when they depart from their individual village and head into the forest/mountains and on their perspective, individual journeys. The external scenery that both of the authors provide, has both liberal and figurative meanings that simulate Rip Van Winkle’s and Young Goodman Brown’s experiences. Both characters go into dream-like states and are forced to face problems that would eventually expose their true identities. This shorts stories conclude with transformations in the two characters internal perspectives and external perceptions towards their respective communities and time periods. Young Goodman Brown and Rip Van Winkle illustrate their early American life in a puritan village and New English colony. Overall, one of the most important details in the stories are the relationships these characters have with their wives. In the beginning of Young Goodman Brown, Brown adores his newly wed wife named Faith who he ironically refers to as a blessed angel on Earth. Through out his journey Brown puts his wife in a pedestal of purity despite learning the truth about his brother. Brown’s attitudes starts to change toward Faith during a dream that convinces him of her spiritual demise that is been represented by the symbolic pink ribbons that are falling of the sky. Faiths pink ribbons are a symbol of her virtue, innocence, and purity. The image of the pink ribbons falling from the sky marks the start of the radical transformation of Brown’s feelings towards his wife Faith and his former self towards his society. When Brown returns from his night (dream) in the forest his reaction towards Faith is as if she was a repulsive stranger and is no longer the loving wife he held with high respect and in a pedestal. The story ends with Faith and Brown’s children following Brown’s funeral procession. In the beginning of Rip Van Winkle, Rip is portrayed as lazy husband who would do anything for others except his own husbandly duties. Rip Van Winkle’s wife, Dame Winkle, who is nothing like her husband goes around doing her wifely duties, as a wife and mother, regardless whether her husband Rip meets her needs. Despite been such a likeable person to his friends and neighbors, Winkle makes his wife’s life complicated. Dame Van Winkle is the typical wife that takes care of the obligations she has at home while Rip refuses to be productive around the house. The story emphasis’s how relentlessly Dame nags Rip. However if Rip had assumed his share of household responsibilities perhaps Rip might not have felt an impact. Dame’s life is further complicated by the absence of 20 years of her husband. When Rip returns Dame is dead and he is taken in by his daughter who replaces the maternal role that his wife (dame) had previously occupied. The external scene plays an important role in Rip’s life. The mountains where he goes to hunt are referred to as magical and fairy place, foreshadowing Winkles encounter with the supernatural. In the mountain Rip decides to stay the night ironically this is just where he sleeps for the next 20 years. The branches and the vines that are in Rip’s way on his trip back home are a metaphor for the difficulties that he will soon face back home. The same can be said of the shadowy sinister forest that Brown encounters, this is an indication of the man he will soon become. The dark cloud that Brown sees in the sky is can be a symbol of the dark magic that lies in the center of the forest. Supernatural elements and beings that display mischief in both stories have an important role in both Young and Rip lives. The person Brown meets in the forest displays weird characteristics. This individual is capable of running at abnormal speeds, turns a staff into a snake, and creates a walking stick that allows Brown to transport himself into the center of the forest . This person is later identified to be the devil, is able to change his appearance at will and appears similar to Young Goodman’s grandfather. Brown also observes members of his church, who are witches and wizards, attend a diabolical ceremony. Brown then observes the ceremony being performed by his fellow members. Unlike the evil that Brown experiences, the supernatural things that Rip experiences are nothing of evilness but more of people who enjoy their respective time. While Rip goes up to the mountains with his beloved dog to avoid his wife and hunts for squirrels, he is approached by a group of people who are in a gathering in the mountains, he is invited to join them and he steals a drink which evidently leads to his journey. Brown and Rips life’s are completely altered by the encounters of these supernatural beings and elements during their journeys. Both characters struggle with their identities after becoming lost in their dreams where they were unable to identify reality. Rip discovers that his existence has been erased from the villagers minds after 20 years of absence. Both his nagging wife, Dame, and his loving dog which where his daily aspects of his life are now dead. The new ideas and their patriotism of the villagers are different to Rip’s due to the fact that he had slept through one of America’s greatest moments the American Revolution. Rip goes into a deep confusion when he sees his son, who is now a grown man and who is the precise counterpart of himself, just as he went up the mountain. The appearance of his son makes Rip comprehend the gravity of the situation he is now in. Goodman Brown also experiences something similarly when he is trapped in his world were he discovers the unchristian secrets of his town and even worse his wife’s secrets. He also has confusion on who he is, even the devil with who he meets physically resembles him. Brown is also confused when the devil tells him that he had also had several meetings with Brown’s grandfather and father. Technically, Brown is only away one night but to him it seems along time, at the same time Rip’s 20 years of absence is also one night. Both, Hawthorne and Irving, illustrate American civilization and culture. Natives Americans are represented as evil beings hiding in the forest . While Goodman Brown is walking to the forest he would turn around to see if they weren’t hiding in the trees. When Rip returns back to his village, the villagers tell him that there where rumors that he was carried away by the Indians. References to native Americans demonstrate the mentality of early American towards civilizations that lived ere long before their colonization. In Rip Van Winkle, Irving provides examples of the change of attitudes of colonist before and after the revolutionary war. When Rip wakes up from his 20 year nap he is confronted by the villagers and they ask him what is his â€Å"role†, he makes the mistake of saying he is loyal to England and therefore, he is ac cused of being a spy . Their accusations illustrate the beginning of individual freedom that they now had after winning their Revolution. Hawthorne uses Goodman Brown to proof that the puritans in the village were not really pure. He demonstrates how the puritans would violently pursue people who had other belief systems. For instance, the devil tells Goodman how his past relatives had lashed Quaker women and set fire to an Indian village. To further demonstrate this Brown was giving the ability to witness first hand every sin that his puritan brothers had committed. By the end of both stories the inner self of the characters had undergone a major transformation. The previous role that they had in their earlier communities and lives had also transformed. Brown was aware of the sins of his neighbor, therefore his beliefs about his community had radically changed . His relationship with his wife is no longer a union of love but more of an obligation that he had. The things that the devil had shown Brown had impend him from moving on. After living his life as a cynical person, he dies. Au contraire Rip had become a living legend in his community, somewhat of a war hero, he would always retell his story to other town’s folks in the cavern . He is now free of his wife, who had always been an intrusion in his life. Despite feeling belligerent at the villagers new political stance Rip was now glad he was happy, a free man. Rip’s attitude remains the same but 20 years later he is old enough that a man his age can be taken lightly. Rip’s new perception has change the image of himself, he is now a free husband/hero in the village instead of a lazy husband. As for Brown, the perception he gained, made him more of an open minded person to the sins of the villagers in his community. After his journey through the forest is over he has to live with the burden of the knowledge that not all puritans where pure. Rip Van Winkle The characters in Rip Van Winkle and Young Goodman Brown written respectively by Washington Irving and Nathaniel Hawthorne leave their individual communities and return with radically different perspectives (of their current lives) that change their attitudes and way of life in the remaining of their lives. Both stories are set in early American villages, Young Goodman Brown takes place in the 1700’s New England puritan settlement while Rip Van Winkle takes place over 100 years later in an English colony in eastern New York. Both authors were very clever to use different historical context to illustrate cultural aspects of early American societies in order to make the reader aware of how big of a role gender, politics and religion where to the societies. Strange/Supernatural forces challenge and would radically change both characters when they depart from their individual village and head into the forest/mountains and on their perspective, individual journeys. The external scenery that both of the authors provide, has both liberal and figurative meanings that simulate Rip Van Winkle’s and Young Goodman Brown’s experiences. Both characters go into dream-like states and are forced to face problems that would eventually expose their true identities. This shorts stories conclude with transformations in the two characters internal perspectives and external perceptions towards their respective communities and time periods. Young Goodman Brown and Rip Van Winkle illustrate their early American life in a puritan village and New English colony. Overall, one of the most important details in the stories are the relationships these characters have with their wives. In the beginning of Young Goodman Brown, Brown adores his newly wed wife named Faith who he ironically refers to as a blessed angel on Earth. Through out his journey Brown puts his wife in a pedestal of purity despite learning the truth about his brother. Brown’s attitudes starts to change toward Faith during a dream that convinces him of her spiritual demise that is been represented by the symbolic pink ribbons that are falling of the sky. Faiths pink ribbons are a symbol of her virtue, innocence, and purity. The image of the pink ribbons falling from the sky marks the start of the radical transformation of Brown’s feelings towards his wife Faith and his former self towards his society. When Brown returns from his night (dream) in the forest his reaction towards Faith is as if she was a repulsive stranger and is no longer the loving wife he held with high respect and in a pedestal. The story ends with Faith and Brown’s children following Brown’s funeral procession. In the beginning of Rip Van Winkle, Rip is portrayed as lazy husband who would do anything for others except his own husbandly duties. Rip Van Winkle’s wife, Dame Winkle, who is nothing like her husband goes around doing her wifely duties, as a wife and mother, regardless whether her husband Rip meets her needs. Despite been such a likeable person to his friends and neighbors, Winkle makes his wife’s life complicated. Dame Van Winkle is the typical wife that takes care of the obligations she has at home while Rip refuses to be productive around the house. The story emphasis’s how relentlessly Dame nags Rip. However if Rip had assumed his share of household responsibilities perhaps Rip might not have felt an impact. Dame’s life is further complicated by the absence of 20 years of her husband. When Rip returns Dame is dead and he is taken in by his daughter who replaces the maternal role that his wife (dame) had previously occupied. The external scene plays an important role in Rip’s life. The mountains where he goes to hunt are referred to as magical and fairy place, foreshadowing Winkles encounter with the supernatural. In the mountain Rip decides to stay the night ironically this is just where he sleeps for the next 20 years. The branches and the vines that are in Rip’s way on his trip back home are a metaphor for the difficulties that he will soon face back home. The same can be said of the shadowy sinister forest that Brown encounters, this is an indication of the man he will soon become. The dark cloud that Brown sees in the sky is can be a symbol of the dark magic that lies in the center of the forest. Supernatural elements and beings that display mischief in both stories have an important role in both Young and Rip lives. The person Brown meets in the forest displays weird characteristics. This individual is capable of running at abnormal speeds, turns a staff into a snake, and creates a walking stick that allows Brown to transport himself into the center of the forest . This person is later identified to be the devil, is able to change his appearance at will and appears similar to Young Goodman’s grandfather. Brown also observes members of his church, who are witches and wizards, attend a diabolical ceremony. Brown then observes the ceremony being performed by his fellow members. Unlike the evil that Brown experiences, the supernatural things that Rip experiences are nothing of evilness but more of people who enjoy their respective time. While Rip goes up to the mountains with his beloved dog to avoid his wife and hunts for squirrels, he is approached by a group of people who are in a gathering in the mountains, he is invited to join them and he steals a drink which evidently leads to his journey. Brown and Rips life’s are completely altered by the encounters of these supernatural beings and elements during their journeys. Both characters struggle with their identities after becoming lost in their dreams where they were unable to identify reality. Rip discovers that his existence has been erased from the villagers minds after 20 years of absence. Both his nagging wife, Dame, and his loving dog which where his daily aspects of his life are now dead. The new ideas and their patriotism of the villagers are different to Rip’s due to the fact that he had slept through one of America’s greatest moments the American Revolution. Rip goes into a deep confusion when he sees his son, who is now a grown man and who is the precise counterpart of himself, just as he went up the mountain. The appearance of his son makes Rip comprehend the gravity of the situation he is now in. Goodman Brown also experiences something similarly when he is trapped in his world were he discovers the unchristian secrets of his town and even worse his wife’s secrets. He also has confusion on who he is, even the devil with who he meets physically resembles him. Brown is also confused when the devil tells him that he had also had several meetings with Brown’s grandfather and father. Technically, Brown is only away one night but to him it seems along time, at the same time Rip’s 20 years of absence is also one night. Both, Hawthorne and Irving, illustrate American civilization and culture. Natives Americans are represented as evil beings hiding in the forest . While Goodman Brown is walking to the forest he would turn around to see if they weren’t hiding in the trees. When Rip returns back to his village, the villagers tell him that there where rumors that he was carried away by the Indians. References to native Americans demonstrate the mentality of early American towards civilizations that lived ere long before their colonization. In Rip Van Winkle, Irving provides examples of the change of attitudes of colonist before and after the revolutionary war. When Rip wakes up from his 20 year nap he is confronted by the villagers and they ask him what is his â€Å"role†, he makes the mistake of saying he is loyal to England and therefore, he is ac cused of being a spy . Their accusations illustrate the beginning of individual freedom that they now had after winning their Revolution. Hawthorne uses Goodman Brown to proof that the puritans in the village were not really pure. He demonstrates how the puritans would violently pursue people who had other belief systems. For instance, the devil tells Goodman how his past relatives had lashed Quaker women and set fire to an Indian village. To further demonstrate this Brown was giving the ability to witness first hand every sin that his puritan brothers had committed. By the end of both stories the inner self of the characters had undergone a major transformation. The previous role that they had in their earlier communities and lives had also transformed. Brown was aware of the sins of his neighbor, therefore his beliefs about his community had radically changed . His relationship with his wife is no longer a union of love but more of an obligation that he had. The things that the devil had shown Brown had impend him from moving on. After living his life as a cynical person, he dies. Au contraire Rip had become a living legend in his community, somewhat of a war hero, he would always retell his story to other town’s folks in the cavern . He is now free of his wife, who had always been an intrusion in his life. Despite feeling belligerent at the villagers new political stance Rip was now glad he was happy, a free man. Rip’s attitude remains the same but 20 years later he is old enough that a man his age can be taken lightly. Rip’s new perception has change the image of himself, he is now a free husband/hero in the village instead of a lazy husband. As for Brown, the perception he gained, made him more of an open minded person to the sins of the villagers in his community. After his journey through the forest is over he has to live with the burden of the knowledge that not all puritans where pure.

The Differential Theory And Social Control Theory

Introduction: will briefly describe how the differential theory and social control theory link to prostitution â€Å"Prostitution is the continual supply of physical sexual intercourse of some kind in direct exchange for material rewards, usually money† (Adriaenssens and Hendrickx 2012, p. 1) It is a corrupt way of producing one’s financial or personal gains. Women and men enter this line of business due to various reasons, which results with various types of prostitutes, such as; high-end escorts, third world sex slaves and street prostitutes. Prostitution is a sustained cycle due to numerous pros and cons such as; job satisfaction, quick cash, sex slavery, and to fuel drug addictions. This is supported by Robert Merton’s modes of adaption theory. Prostitutes who willingly end up in the sex trade is because of bad experiences with family and friends, hanging out with the wrong people, having no intentions for a healthy future, involvement with wrong activities a nd wrong beliefs. This is supported by the Hirschi’s bond theory. This paper will indicate how Merton’s, mode of adaption theory and Hirschi’s bond theory are able to explain prostitutes. 1st paragraph: will be discussing what the modes of adaption theory are Robert Merton’s strain theory contains five adaption styles, which are known as the modes of adaption theory. The theory consists of conformity, innovation, ritualism and retreatism. Out of the five, innovation and retreatism can be used to explain whyShow MoreRelatedA Norm Is A Rule Of Behavior Of Individuals In Society1491 Words   |  6 Pagessociety or groups, Emile Durkheim sociological founder considered norms to be social factors that exist in individual’s society of independence that creates the shapes of our behaviors and thoughts (Crossman, 2017). 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